Key Areas for Revision and Past Questions

YOU ARE AS CRAZY AS CAPTAIN NOLAN CHARGING WITH THE LIGHT BRIDAGE IF YOU HAVE NOT COVERED IN DETAIL THESE TOPICS IN PRIORITY ORDER

1. Criticism and defence of military leadership/administration in the Crimean War - how were the men treated, who is to blame and what mistakes were made by Raglan and other leaders?

2. Contribution of Nightingale and Seacole - positives/negatives/problems/successes/treatment/their attitudes

3. How did the Crimean War stimulate reform/changes? What were the reforms? Extent of the reforms - Evaluate them? Did the Crimean spark them? What impact did they have?

4. Impact of William Russell's reporting on the role of the press and attitudes towards the war.

PAST PAPER QUESTIONS

A) How far do the sources suggest that the reporting of William Howard Russell changed attitudes to the Crimean War?
B)Do you agree with the view that leadership of the army during the Crimean War was characterised by incompetence?
A) How far do the sources suggest that the British army leaders were not concerned with the welfare of soldiers in the British army?
A) How far do sources 2 and 3 challenge the view given in source a that the officers commanding the British army in the Crimean War were unfit for position?
B) Do you agree with the view that it was largely as a result of Florence Nightingale that medical care for British soldiers improved during the Crimean War?
A) How far do source 2 and 3 challenge the impression given of Lord Raglan in source 1?
A) How far do sources 1 and 2 challenge the impression of the Charge of the Light Brigade given in source 3?
A) How far do sources 1 and 2 challenge the view of Captain Nolan in source 3?

How did the war start? and What were the main stages?

Both the cartoons above and below show the threat of Russia to Turkey and Europe. The cartoon above shows British attitudes and fears of Russia (the bear) gaining control of the Turkish Empire. The cartoon below shows Russia as an octopus spreading West and East. A direct threat to British and French interests.



CAUSES

Threat of Russian Empire to Britain
Russia expanding in Black Sea area threat to British India
'Sick old man of Europe' Ottoman (Turkish)empire collapsing - competition for land/control
Turkey controlled access to the Black Sea from the Mediterranean
Russia wanted ice free ports for its fleet
Britain wanted access to Black Sea in friendly hands for its own access therefore didn't want Russia to have control
Turks accused by Russia of mistreating Orthodox Christians
Ultimatum sent by Russians to Turks
Turks rejected it
Russia entered Moldavia and Wallachia - which were not part of Turkish empire but bordered it
Britain and France sent a fleet to support Turks
Diplomats of all countries tried to avoid war
HOWEVER Sultan of Turkey boosted by belief Britain and France would support Turkey (to avoid its collapse and Russia getting domination) declared war on Russia
The Crimean War had officially started for Russia and Turkey October 1853.
Britain and France would enter the war April 1854 when there fleet arrived in the Dardanelles (the small area between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea - look at the maps below).
As more and more British troops arrived the moved from Constantinople to Scutari




WHAT WERE THE MAIN STAGES OF THE CRIMEAN WAR 1854-1856?

Tensions with Russia
Fleet sent to support Turkey
British fleet arrives at Constantinople
Movement of troops to Scutari
May 1854 - British and French troops deployed at Varna
Russian retreat
Threat to Turkey over
Popular support in Britain pressure for Lord Raglan to push British troops on
Aim to capture main Russian naval base at Sebastopol and remove threat of Russian fleet
Sept 1854 Battle of Alma - number of British mistakes but victory
Sept 1854 Siege of Sebastopol the Russian port beings by British and French
Oct 1854 Battle of Balaclava - attempt by Russian to break Siege by attack British supply base - Thin Red Line holds
Oct 1854 Charge of the Light Brigade
Nov 1854 Battle of Inkerman - Russian fail to break British army siege
Nov 1854 Nightingale arrives at Scutari
Jan 1855 Harsh Russian winter
Spring 1855 Seacole's British Hotel established
Sept 1855 Russia evacuate Sebastopol
Feb 1856 Armistice agreed in Crimea
30th March 1856 Treaty of Paris signed

How was the war reported and what effect did it have?

William Russell (above) journalist for The Times Newspaper and Roger Fenton photographer were two important individuals in the reporting of the Crimean war. It is important to understand their role and methods as often their reports are used as evidence in understanding the experience of warfare within the Crimea. HOWEVER they are not the only reporters or sources of evidence e.g. doctors, officers, soldiers etc.

Russell - frank and graphic reports
Matter-of-fact / objective
Contrasted with previous reports - romantic and jingoistic heroism
The Times shocked middle class readers
Circulation rose from 42,500 to 58,500 during the war
Highlighted military mismanagement and administrative incompetence
Led to criticism of Lord Raglan
Also led to creation of various contributory funds to help the troops

Fenton
Sent to take photos for sale
Victorian values against photos of dead bodies etc
Technology limited - subjctes needed to be still
Photographed - men, officers, ships at Balaclava
Eventually battle fields after the battles - covered in round shot and shells e.g. 'The valley of the shadow of death' 1855 - click on the image below to enlarge and see the shot
This brought home the true nature of the war to the British public - very different from previous painted or drawn heroic images of war.

How successful was the British army?

Were the troops well supplied?


Short answer - NO especially the winter of 1854-1855 - series of mistakes from military commanders.

-Supply did not meet the demand from the army
Government in London had been gathering supplies - set Oct 1954
-Lord Cardingan refused to have horses killed - could have been used for food - horses eventually died of starvation anyway.
-Storm 1854 made thing worse - supply boats went out to sea rather than stay in harbour ships sank e.g. Resolute and the steamship Prince
-Lack of communication and coordination between parts of the government and military.
-All brought to public attention by Russell

Spring 1855 things began to improve -

- administration improved
- central depot for supplies
- Turkish labour made a railway line
- other transport for supplies e.g. mules.
- Those selling or stealing supplies controlled
- Clothes, boots and even fresh meat/fruit
- Progress was slow but did improve

How effective was the medical care?

Reflected medical knowledge at the time
War ready medical service built from scratch
Led initially by Andrews Smith
Misinformed of troop numbers
Limited wagons, no stretcher bearers and no doctors
Use army pensioners as stretcher bearers - disastrous move.
Conflict with Raglan - believe space on ships was for troops therefore less medical assistants
Doctors recruited on volunteer basis - caused problems
Hospital ships taken over as troop ships
Same issue with medical supplies
Organisation heavily criticised

What problems and conditions did the soldiers face?

A number of key problems for the men

Weather - cold Russian winter Jan 1855
Poor leadership - e.g. COLTB/Commissions/Raglan/infighting - Cardigan and Lucan
Limited medical care - limited knowledge / treatment crude / initially limited resources under Dr Smith / under estimated numbers / initial use of pensioners as stretcher bearers / doctors on volunteer basis / medical ships used for transport of troops / supply problems / poor admin and organisation
Lack of clean water illustrated by outbreaks of cholera, dysentery, typhus
Poor sanitation leading to disease - 18,058 died of which 16,297 died from wounds / disease - but disease and poor medical care also killer in UK
Administrative chaos
Supply issues

Who deserved to be called the 'Angel of Mercy'?

For Seacole

Showed the contribution of not only women but people of colour
Despite official rejection still made her way to Crimea
Formed Seacole and Day
Set up British Hotel -sold supplies/provisions
Helped wounded and dying
Went to the battlefield
Hard working
One of the first to enter Sebastopol after Russians evacuated
Returned home bankrupt - non profit making
Funds raised by ex soldiers, public and soldiers
Wrote 'Wonderful Adventures of Mary Seacole in Many Lands' - sold well

Faced problems of prejudice authority and rejections
Rejected by Nightingale
Faced Victorians attitudes




Nightingale on a £2 coin and old £10 note




For and against Nightingale

For
Worked at Scutari barracks hospital
In charge of 38 nurses
Helped clean up the hospital and reduce the death rate from disease
Energy and devotion
Seen by press and public as the 'angel of mercy'
Raised the profile of nursing to a new respected level - profession for women
Public contributions to Nightingale Fund allowed for the Nightingale Training School for nurses to be set up.
Published Notes for Nursing - popular and still in print today

Against
Rejected Seacole
Had all the advantages - allowance from family/support of Sidney Herbert Sec of War
Part of a team - not just her
Did not go to the Battlefield
Evidence that improved hygiene/sanitation started before she arrived
Evidence that improvements were work of others e.g. Sanitary Commission
Lady with the lamp myth - reputations vs reality
Disagreements and disputes with other nurses over harsh discipline and inability to compromise
Clashed over rival nursing groups e.g. Mary Stanley
Mary Stanley by summer 1855 had 47 nurses compared to Nightingales 39

What were the most significant outcomes of the Crimean War?

KEY OUTCOMES

A.Paris Peace Conference
Did not address areas of the dispute
House of Commons called it weak
Criticised the government
Russia got all territory back
Black sea neutralised
Guarantees over Turkish sovereignty
Sultan improved conditions for Christians
Russia did not attack Turkey for 20 years

B.Nursing Profession
Work of Nightingale supported by reporting of Russell led to awareness
Nightingale Fund
Subscriptions led by Sidney Herbert (Sec of War)
Money flooded in
Enough for permanent training school for nurses
Nightingale reluctant

C.McNeill-Tulloch Report
Feb 1855 McNeill and Tulloch went to Crimea to investigate reports on supply problems
Report looked at how supplies obtained and sent - made public
Report on delays by army - only given to Parliament
Reports April 1856 - showed military negligence which would help Parliament to increase control over army - away from Generals and monarchy

D.Cardwell Army Reforms 1870-71
Introduced by Edward Cardwell - Sec for War
Series of Acts
-War Office
-Regional districts
-Each district - one battalion over seas/one battalion at home/ one battalion of militia
Overseas service cut from 12 to 6 years
Commissions abolished - promotion based on merit
Commander and chief reported to Sec of War - therefore answerable to Parliament
Flogging in peacetime forbidden
Reserves paid but had to do training

IMPORTANT - Attacked by military/aristocracy - controversial
Resistance to change e.g. only introduced breech loading rifles not for artillery
Still only had small reserve army 35,000 compared to Prussia 1million

E.Civil Service Entry
Robert Lowe
Exam entry extended to FO and HO
Resulted in being dominated by graduates from Oxford and Cambridge
Progression difficult
Upper class dominated

F.Seacole Forgotten
See Nightingale and Seacole Section

G.Victoria Cross
Sparked by reporting of heroism by people like Russell
Officers feared it would encourage individual acts of courage
Medal supported by Victoria and Albert
Highest award today